An attainment of effortless insight into emptiness‍—the realization that all phenomena are unborn (anutpāda) and empty of intrinsic nature (niḥsvabhāva). This acceptance supports bodhisattvas on the arduous path of returning through innumerable rounds of rebirth in order to benefit beings without being tempted by the goal of personal liberation. This attainment only occurs on the bodhisattva levels and is variously said to occur on the first and eighth bodhisattva levels.

The five aggregates that make up phenomenal existence are form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness. On the individual level the five aggregates refer to the basis onto which the mistaken idea of a self is projected.

King of Magadha and son of King Bimbisāra. When he was a prince, he became friends with the Buddha Śākyamuni’s cousin Devadatta, who convinced him to have his father killed and become king instead. After his father’s death, he was tormented with guilt and regret, converted to Buddhism, and supported the compilation of the Buddha’s teachings during the First Council.

A buddha prophesied to appear in the future. This prophecy will be given to the bodhisattva Resounding Voice by the future buddha Vikurvāṇarāja.

A major śrāvaka disciple and personal attendant of the Buddha Śākyamuni during the last twenty-five years of his life. He was a cousin of the Buddha (according to the Mahāvastu, he was a son of Śuklodana, one of the brothers of King Śuddhodana, which means he was a brother of Devadatta; other sources say he was a son of Amṛtodana, another brother of King Śuddhodana, which means he would have been a brother of Aniruddha).

Ānanda, having always been in the Buddha’s presence, is said to have memorized all the teachings he heard and is celebrated for having recited all the Buddha’s teachings by memory at the first council of the Buddhist saṅgha, thus preserving the teachings after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa. The phrase “Thus did I hear at one time,” found at the beginning of the sūtras, usually stands for his recitation of the teachings. He became a patriarch after the passing of Mahākāśyapa.

According to Buddhist tradition, one who is worthy of worship (pūjām arhati), or one who has conquered the enemies, the mental afflictions (kleśa-ari-hata-vat), and reached liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. It is the fourth and highest of the four fruits attainable by śrāvakas. Also used as an epithet of the Buddha.

A type of nonhuman being whose precise status is subject to different views, but is included as one of the six classes of beings in the sixfold classification of realms of rebirth. In the Buddhist context, asuras are powerful beings said to be dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility. They are also known in the pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic mythologies of India and Iran, and feature prominently in Vedic and post-Vedic Brahmanical mythology, as well as in the Buddhist tradition. In these traditions, asuras are often described as being engaged in interminable conflict with the devas (gods).

Yeshé Dé (late eighth to early ninth century) was the most prolific translator of sūtras into Tibetan. Altogether he is credited with the translation of more than one hundred sixty sūtra translations and more than one hundred additional translations, mostly on tantric topics. In spite of Yeshé Dé’s great importance for the propagation of Buddhism in Tibet during the imperial era, only a few biographical details about this figure are known. Later sources describe him as a student of the Indian teacher Padmasambhava, and he is also credited with teaching both sūtra and tantra widely to students of his own. He was also known as Nanam Yeshé Dé, from the Nanam (sna nam) clan.

Known as “Bhadra the illusionist,” he was a powerful magician of Rājagṛha whose attempts to fool the Buddha go awry in The Prophecy for Bhadra the Illusionist.

In Buddhist literature, this is an epithet applied to buddhas, most often to Śākyamuni. The Sanskrit term generally means “possessing fortune,” but in specifically Buddhist contexts it implies that a buddha is in possession of six auspicious qualities (bhaga) associated with complete awakening. The Tibetan term‍—where bcom is said to refer to “subduing” the four māras, ldan to “possessing” the great qualities of buddhahood, and ’das to “going beyond” saṃsāra and nirvāṇa‍—possibly reflects the commentarial tradition where the Sanskrit bhagavat is interpreted, in addition, as “one who destroys the four māras.” This is achieved either by reading bhagavat as bhagnavat (“one who broke”), or by tracing the word bhaga to the root √bhañj (“to break”).

A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world; he is also considered to be the lord of the Sahā world (our universe). Though not considered a creator god in Buddhism, Brahmā occupies an important place as one of two gods (the other being Indra/Śakra) said to have first exhorted the Buddha Śākyamuni to teach the Dharma. The particular heavens found in the form realm over which Brahmā rules are often some of the most sought-after realms of higher rebirth in Buddhist literature. Since there are many universes or world systems, there are also multiple Brahmās presiding over them. His most frequent epithets are “Lord of the Sahā World” (sahāṃpati) and Great Brahmā (mahābrahman).

A collective name for the first three heavens of the form realm, which correspond to the first concentration (dhyāna): Brahmakāyika, Brahmapurohita, and Mahābrahmā (also called Brahmapārṣadya). These are ruled over by the god Brahmā. According to some sources, it can also be a general reference to all the heavens in the form realm and formless realm. (Provisional 84000 definition. New definition forthcoming.)

The omniscience seeing both how things are ultimately and how they manifest in their variety. The buddha eye is also included in the “five eyes.”

The way to full awakening, equivalent to the Mahāyāna or Great Vehicle.

Refers to a calm state without thought, or the meditative practice of calming the mind to rest free from the disturbance of thought. One of the two basic forms of Buddhist meditation, the other being transcendent insight (Skt. vipaśyanā, Tib. lhag mthong).

Literally “wanderer,” refers to a religious mendicant; in Buddhist texts this term is often paired with parivrājaka in stock lists of followers of non-Buddhist ascetic traditions. In some cases, Tibetan sources will give this term as a translation of mīmāṃsaka, a member of the Mīmāṃsā school. However, this is likely a confusion with the similarly spelled dpyod pa ba, which correctly translates the Sanskrit meaning of mīmāṃsaka as “examiner” or “investigator.”

A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

Designates both the mental state of deep concentration and the meditative practices leading to it. These states are characterized by a gradual withdrawal of consciousness from external sense data. Two broad distinctions are made: rūpāvacara­dhyāna, or the meditative concentration associated with the form realm, and ārūpyāvacara­dhyāna, or the meditative concentration associated with the formless or immaterial realm. Each of the two dhyānas is subdivided into four stages. This kind of mental concentration by itself does not lead to lasting insight, but it is generally regarded as a prerequisite‍—a state of mental concentration from which it is possible to cultivate insight, destroy the mental afflictions, and attain liberation. Fixation on dhyāna by itself can be said to lead to rebirth in the form or formless realm.

See “conjuration.”

In the context of Buddhist philosophy, one way to describe experience in terms of eighteen elements (eye, form, and eye consciousness; ear, sound, and ear consciousness; nose, smell, and nose consciousness; tongue, taste, and tongue consciousness; body, touch, and body consciousness; and mind, mental phenomena, and mind consciousness).

This also refers to the elements of the world, which can be enumerated as four, five, or six. The four elements are earth, water, fire, and air. A fifth, space, is often added, and the sixth is consciousness.

See “four correct discernments.”

A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

These are eighteen unique qualities possessed by a buddha. They are “unique” in the sense that they are only possessed by buddhas and not by any other type of being. There are slight variations in the wording and order of the eighteen items found among various sources. For three canonical works that list the eighteen, see The Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines (Toh 11) at 2.8, The Jewel Cloud (Toh 231) at 1.249, and Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings (Toh 317) at 1.96.

Eighteen special features of a buddha’s behavior, realization, activity, and wisdom that are not shared by other beings. They are generally listed as: (1) he never makes a mistake, (2) he is never boisterous, (3) he never forgets, (4) his concentration never falters, (5) he has no notion of distinctness, (6) his equanimity is not due to lack of consideration, (7) his motivation never falters, (8) his endeavor never fails, (9) his mindfulness never falters, (10) he never abandons his concentration, (11) his insight (prajñā) never decreases, (12) his liberation never fails, (13) all his physical actions are preceded and followed by wisdom (jñāna), (14) all his verbal actions are preceded and followed by wisdom, (15) all his mental actions are preceded and followed by wisdom, (16) his wisdom and vision perceive the past without attachment or hindrance, (17) his wisdom and vision perceive the future without attachment or hindrance, and (18) his wisdom and vision perceive the present without attachment or hindrance.

A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

The name for our world system, the universe of a thousand million worlds, or trichiliocosm, in which the four-continent world is located. Each trichiliocosm is ruled by a god Brahmā; thus, in this context, he bears the title of Sahāṃpati, Lord of Sahā. The world system of Sahā, or Sahālokadhātu, is also described as the buddhafield of the Buddha Śākyamuni where he teaches the Dharma to beings.

The name Sahā possibly derives from the Sanskrit √sah, “to bear, endure, or withstand.” It is often interpreted as alluding to the inhabitants of this world being able to endure the suffering they encounter. The Tibetan translation, mi mjed, follows along the same lines. It literally means “not painful,” in the sense that beings here are able to bear the suffering they experience.

A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

This refers to what occurs at the end of an arhat’s or a buddha’s life. When nirvāṇa is attained at awakening, whether as an arhat or buddha, all suffering, afflicted mental states (kleśa), and causal processes (karman) that lead to rebirth and suffering in cyclic existence have ceased, but due to previously accumulated karma, the aggregates of that life remain and must still exhaust themselves. It is only at the end of life that these cease, and since no new aggregates arise, the arhat or buddha is said to attain parinirvāṇa, meaning “complete” or “final” nirvāṇa. This is synonymous with the attainment of nirvāṇa without remainder (anupadhiśeṣanirvāṇa).

According to the Mahāyāna view of a single vehicle (ekayāna), the arhat’s parinirvāṇa at death, despite being so called, is not final. The arhat must still enter the bodhisattva path and reach buddhahood (see Unraveling the Intent, Toh 106, 7.14.) On the other hand, the parinirvāṇa of a buddha, ultimately speaking, should be understood as a display manifested for the benefit of beings; see The Teaching on the Extraordinary Transformation That Is the Miracle of Attaining the Buddha’s Powers (Toh 186), 1.32.

The term parinirvāṇa is also associated specifically with the passing away of the Buddha Śākyamuni, in Kuśinagara, in northern India.

A bodhisattva in the Buddha’s retinue.

The five eyes are as follows: (1) the eye of flesh, (2) the divine eye, (3) the eye of insight (prajñā), (4) the Dharma eye, and (5) the buddha eye.

The name of our current eon, so-called because one thousand buddhas are prophesied to appear in succession during this time, Śākyamuni being the fourth and Maitreya the fifth.

Four aspects by which a bodhisattva or tathāgata makes correct discernment without making a mistake or confusing one phenomenon with another. The four are listed as (1) the correct discernment of meaning, (2) the correct discernment of Dharma, (3) the correct discernment of etymology or language (nirukti), and (4) the correct discernment of eloquence. See The Perfection of Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines (Toh 11, 2.6). They are also sometimes referred to as the four correct discernments of a tathāgata (tathāgatha­catuḥ­pratisaṃvid), which is the same set of four but refers specifically to the discernments of a tathāgata as opposed to those similarly possessed by bodhisattvas.

The four fearlessnesses (abhaya) or confidences (vaiśāradya) are assertions that a tathāgata makes with irrefutable certainty: that of being (1) awakened and knowing all phenomena, (2) knowing the exhaustion of all defilements, (3) correctly identifying all obstacles to liberation, and (4) revealing/actualizing the path that leads to liberation.

Four gods who live on the lower slopes (fourth level) of Mount Meru in the eponymous Heaven of the Four Great Kings (Cāturmahā­rājika, rgyal chen bzhi’i ris) and guard the four cardinal directions. Each is the leader of a nonhuman class of beings living in his realm. They are Dhṛtarāṣṭra, ruling the gandharvas in the east; Virūḍhaka, ruling over the kumbhāṇḍas in the south; Virūpākṣa, ruling the nāgas in the west; and Vaiśravaṇa (also known as Kubera) ruling the yakṣas in the north. Also referred to as Guardians of the World or World Protectors (lokapāla, ’jig rten skyong ba).

Refers to the four basic bodily activities: walking or going (caṅkrama/gamana), sitting or staying (niṣīdana/niṣadana), lying down (śayyā/śayana), and standing (sthāna/sthita).

This denotes the assemblies of fully ordained monks and nuns, along with laymen and laywomen.

A class of generally benevolent nonhuman beings who inhabit the skies, sometimes said to inhabit fantastic cities in the clouds, and more specifically to dwell on the eastern slopes of Mount Meru, where they are ruled by the Great King Dhṛtarāṣṭra. They are most renowned as celestial musicians who serve the gods. In the Abhidharma, the term is also used to refer to the mental body assumed by sentient beings during the intermediate state between death and rebirth. Gandharvas are said to live on fragrances (gandha) in the desire realm, hence the Tibetan translation dri za, meaning “scent eater.”

The Gaṅgā, or Ganges in English, is considered to be the most sacred river of India, particularly within the Hindu tradition. It starts in the Himalayas, flows through the northern plains of India, bathing the holy city of Vārāṇasī, and meets the sea at the Bay of Bengal, in Bangladesh. In the sūtras, however, this river is mostly mentioned not for its sacredness but for its abundant sands‍—noticeable still today on its many sandy banks and at its delta‍—which serve as a common metaphor for infinitely large numbers.

According to Buddhist cosmology, as explained in the Abhidharmakośa, it is one of the four rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta and cross the southern continent of Jambudvīpa‍—the known human world or more specifically the Indian subcontinent.

In Indian mythology, the garuḍa is an eagle-like bird that is regarded as the king of all birds, normally depicted with a sharp, owl-like beak, often holding a snake, and with large and powerful wings. They are traditionally enemies of the nāgas. In the Vedas, they are said to have brought nectar from the heavens to earth. Garuḍa can also be used as a proper name for a king of such creatures.

Siddhārtha Gautama is the name of the Buddha Śākyamuni used prior to his awakening, and it is the name used by those who were not his followers. Gautama is his family name and means “Descendant of Gotama,” Gotama meaning “Excellent Cow.”

The Sanskrit pravrajyā literally means “going forth,” with the sense of leaving the life of a householder and embracing the life of a renunciant. When the term is applied more technically, it refers to the act of becoming a male novice (śrāmaṇera; dge tshul) or female novice (śrāmaṇerikā; dge tshul ma), this being a first stage leading to full ordination.

In the most general sense the devas‍—the term is cognate with the English divine‍—are a class of celestial beings who frequently appear in Buddhist texts, often at the head of the assemblies of nonhuman beings who attend and celebrate the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas and bodhisattvas. In Buddhist cosmology the devas occupy the highest of the five or six “destinies” (gati) of saṃsāra among which beings take rebirth. The devas reside in the devalokas, “heavens” that traditionally number between twenty-six and twenty-eight and are divided between the desire realm (kāmadhātu), form realm (rūpadhātu), and formless realm (ārūpyadhātu). A being attains rebirth among the devas either through meritorious deeds (in the desire realm) or the attainment of subtle meditative states (in the form and formless realms). While rebirth among the devas is considered favorable, it is ultimately a transitory state from which beings will fall when the conditions that lead to rebirth there are exhausted. Thus, rebirth in the god realms is regarded as a diversion from the spiritual path.

The world system in which Bhadra is prophesied to appear as a tathāgata in the future.

One of the heavens of Buddhist cosmology. Counted among the six heavens of the desire realm, it is traditionally located atop Mount Meru, just above the terrace of the abodes of the Four Great Kings. It is reigned over by Śakra and thirty-two other gods.

A magical illusion created by a conjurer or illusionist, or the power to create such an illusion. In the context of Buddhist literature, this is not considered to be a sleight of hand or visual trick but the actual appearance of something, such as an elephant or palace, created by magical means. Although this sort of magical illusion appears, it is unreal in the sense that there is no substantial basis for it beyond its magical appearance. In the Mahāyāna in particular, this sort of illusion (māyā created by magical means) is given as one example of how phenomena are empty and yet vividly appear; it is included in several lists of analogies for phenomena’s illusory nature.The Prophecy for Bhadra the Illusionist uniquely describes the Buddha’s miraculous powers in comparison to the powers of Bhadra the illusionist, also describing the Buddha’s power with the term māyā; however, it is declared (1.16) that the Buddha’s māyā is superior to Bhadra’s, which is limited and incomplete.Also translated as “power of illusion.”

A conjurer, sorcerer, or magician who has the ability to create illusions. See Introduction i.8.

As the sixth of the six perfections, it refers to the profound understanding of the emptiness of all phenomena, the realization of ultimate reality‍. In other translations it is sometimes rendered as “wisdom”; however, we have reserved this latter term for the translation of jñāna. In other contexts it refers to the mental factor responsible for ascertaining the specific qualities of a given object, or whether it should be taken up or rejected.

The quality of intelligence, inspiration, and confident knowledge that allows one to teach and talk in the most appropriate way, even for very long stretches of time.

The name of the southern continent in Buddhist cosmology, which can signify either the known human world, or more specifically the Indian subcontinent, literally “the jambu island/continent.” Jambu is the name used for a range of plum-like fruits from trees belonging to the genus Szygium, particularly Szygium jambos and Szygium cumini, and it has commonly been rendered “rose apple,” although “black plum” may be a less misleading term. Among various explanations given for the continent being so named, one (in the Abhidharmakośa) is that a jambu tree grows in its northern mountains beside Lake Anavatapta, mythically considered the source of the four great rivers of India, and that the continent is therefore named from the tree or the fruit. Jambudvīpa has the Vajrāsana at its center and is the only continent upon which buddhas attain awakening.

Jinamitra was invited to Tibet during the reign of King Tri Songdetsen (khri srong lde btsan, r. 742–98 ᴄᴇ) and was involved with the translation of nearly two hundred texts, continuing into the reign of King Ralpachen (ral pa can, r. 815–38 ᴄᴇ). He was one of the small group of paṇḍitas responsible for the Mahāvyutpatti Sanskrit–Tibetan dictionary.